Abstract
Optical imaging, with its advantages of being radiation-free, simple to operate, high spatiotemporal resolution, and real-time imaging, is widely used in the life sciences. Among these, short-wave infrared (SWIR) imaging technology is a recent emerging research hotspot in optical imaging, and its significant potential in in vivo animal biological function research and clinical translation has expanded the medical research and clinical applications of optical imaging. This article systematically reviews the progress of SWIR imaging applications in in vivo animals, including cellular-level tracing, real-time dynamic visualization of the vascular system, and dynamic monitoring of specific pathophysiological processes. It also focuses on the recent clinical translational advancements of SWIR imaging, particularly its advantages and potential in surgical navigation applications. With the continuous optimization and development of contrast agents (such as fluorescent probes) and imaging equipment (such as multimodal imaging), SWIR imaging holds immense potential for future applications in precision medicine research and clinical diagnosis and treatment.
Introduction
SWIR imaging systems typically include excitation fluorescence, specific fluorescent probes, and high-sensitivity detectors [1]. The imaging system emits excitation fluorescence, the specific fluorescent probes release tracer signals, and the high-sensitivity detectors receive signals. In the early window, the tissue absorbs and scatters fluorescence strongly, resulting in limited signal-to-noise ratio and imaging depth, which still cannot meet the application requirements. After the development of SWIR imaging systems in the greater than 1000 nm band, the1000–1700 nm SWIR band was defined as the near-infrared-II (NIR-II) region. Due to the significant reduction in tissue photon scattering and background tissue fluorescence, it shows greater application potential.
The NIR-II band can be further divided into the NIR-IIa band (1000–1400 nm) and the NIR-IIb band (1500–1700 nm) . The NIR-IIb emitter not only avoids the flooding peak (1450 nm) of water absorption to minimize fluorescence signal attenuation, but also provides the lowest photon scattering throughout the window, thereby achieving the highest spatial resolution (approximately micrometer level) and almost no endogenous bioimaging [2]. Therefore, in the biomedical field, the cutting-edge progress of SWIR technology is mainly focused on the NIR-II band. The concepts of the two will not be discussed separately below.
SWIR imaging not only excels in macroscopic tissue imaging but also achieves unprecedented high-precision tracing capabilities at the cellular scale, opening a new window for in vivo cell behavior research. With the rapid development of fluorescent probes, SWIR imaging has gradually moved from the laboratory to the preclinical and clinical translational stages, demonstrating unique advantages, especially in the dynamic assessment of in vivo performance. Therefore, this article focuses on the research progress of SWIR imaging in areas such as cell tracing, vascular system structural analysis, and disease pathophysiological changes, providing a powerful tool for studying the functions of living organisms.
1 Research and development progress and modification strategies of fluorescent probes
1.1 Improving quantum yield and luminescence brightness
Among common fluorescent probes, quantum dots (QDs) have the highest quantum yield (greater than 90% in the NIR region) , making them suitable for high-brightness imaging. QDs are three-dimensional semiconductor nanocrystals: based on the quantum confinement effect, electrons in the valence band absorb a photon with energy greater than the band gap and are excited to the conduction band; then the electrons relax back to the valence band and emit fluorescence in a radiative manner. QDs are small in size and have outstanding optical properties, including wide excitation spectrum, narrow and symmetrical emission spectrum, high quantum yield and strong photostability [3]. Improvements to quantum dots usually require optimization of surface chemistry, reduction of nonradiative transitions, and improvement of SWIR band efficiency [4]. For example, Chen H et al. developed a low-temperature chemical bath deposition strategy to grow a heterojunction passivation layer on the photoactive layer of HgTe quantum dots, thereby achieving high-performance SWIR light detection at room temperature [5]. Rare earth upconversion materials have extremely large Stokes shifts (up to 1000 nm) , making them suitable for multicolor and interference-resistant imaging. However, its quantum yield is low, and its luminescence efficiency can be improved by ion doping and core-shell structure design [6]. In addition, the quantum yield of organic small molecules and conjugated polymers is also generally low, and SWIR-specific fluorophores can be designed by molecular engineering (such as introducing strong donor-acceptor structures and expanding π conjugation) [7-8].
1.2 Enhance signal discrimination capability
Rare earth compounds naturally possess large anti-Stokes shifts (up to hundreds of nanometers) , and their excitation and emission wavelengths are clearly separated, making them suitable for deep tissue imaging [9]. In organic systems, researchers often tend to develop dyes with intramolecular charge transfer or aggregation-induced emission properties to achieve Stokes shifts greater than 200 nm [10-11].
1.3 Improve biocompatibility
Different strategies exist for improving biocompatibility and reducing toxicity for different fluorescent probes. In quantum dots, low-biotoxicity, biodegradable quantum dots need to be developed, and surface coatings need to be strengthened to prevent metal ion leakage [12-13]. For organic systems, researchers mainly improve water solubility and biocompatibility through hydrophilic modification and polyethylene glycolation [14-15] . Rare earth materials often require biocompatible coatings (such as SiO₂, polymers) to reduce potential toxicity [16] .
2 SWIR enables cell-level tracing
SWIR imaging in cell-level tracking has developed rapidly, with its core advantages being: firstly, micron-level resolution allows for the acquisition of cell trajectories with high signal-to-noise ratios in deep tissues; secondly, the SWIR window exhibits almost no tissue autofluorescence, resulting in extremely low signal background; and thirdly, quantum dots, rare-earth nanoprobes, and small-molecule dyes have formed stable luminescent material systems [17-19]. These characteristics enable SWIR technology to achieve a leap from "visible" to "quantifiable" in vivo tracking at the cell level. This technology has achieved more precise spatiotemporal resolution for tracking microscopic objects within organisms, and is changing the research paradigm in biomedicine regarding cells and their secreted active components (see Figure1) .
Fig.1: Representative achievements of SWIR in cellular-level tracing: (a) SWIR-labeled macrophages reveal the significance of delayed-injection cell therapy for tendon injury repair [20]; (b) SWIR depicts the three-dimensional spatial features of in vivo infection lesion formation [28]; (c) SWIR technology pinpoints the optimal treatment window for postoperative infection [29]; (d) A SWIR fluorescent membrane probe for labeling lipid bilayer nanocarriers guides precise drug delivery of drug-loaded nanoparticles to tumors [32]; (e) A rare-earth element-based SWIR fluorescent ratiometric nanoprobe [33].
2.1 From Static to Dynamic
Traditional techniques, such as immunohistochemical fluorescence of tissue sections, are used to statically observe the intracellular and cell surface, while SWIR technology focuses on dynamic cellular behavior. Thanks to the accurate live cell labeling technology of SWIR, Chen Y et al. further clarified the treatment time window of M2 macrophage injection into the injured rotator cuff by tracing the in situ M2 macrophage injected into the injured rotator cuff, and found that delayed injection of cell therapy had a longer residence time than immediate injection [20]. By labeling targeted mesenchymal stem cells with fluorescent probes, Yang Y et al. successfully mapped the spatiotemporal fate of mesenchymal stem cells after injection into the injured rotator cuff. They found that the migration of stem cells had similar phenotypes in mesenchymal stem cell therapy of different intensities, but the moderate intensity of stem cell therapy had the longest residence time; conversely, the therapeutic efficacy of cell injection that was too strong or too weak declined [21], providing an intuitive reference for guiding stem cell therapy for rotator cuff injury [22]. Similarly, by labeling mesenchymal stem cells, Yang H et al. traced the process of mesenchymal stem cell therapy for lung diseases in vitro, which also proved the feasibility of quantifying and tracking stem cell therapy [23]. Immune cell tracing is also an important direction of SWIR application. Chen Q et al. used multi-channel SWIR to realize real-time monitoring of CAR-T dynamic infiltration [24]; Zhu X et al. used dual-channel ratiometric imaging to capture the process of immune cell-induced tumor apoptosis [25]; Deng T et al . proposed to use CINTER-seq technology to analyze the interaction between immune cells [26]. These studies all show that SWIR imaging can not only show cell localization, but also visualize cell function and cell interaction, demonstrating its revolutionary value in cell behavior.
Tracing bacteria is another innovative direction for SWIR applications. Chen J et al. first proposed a NIR-II fluorescence imaging strategy based on PbS-QDs for real-time dynamic monitoring of bacterial infection in vivo, realizing in vivo bacterial tracing and full life cycle monitoring [27]. On this basis, the team further depicted the three-dimensional spatial characteristics of in vivo lesion formation [28] and locked the optimal time window for postoperative infection treatment [29]. In addition, by labeling collagen, the most important extracellular matrix component, researchers have been able to monitor the degradation and changes of collagen in vivo. This technology is of implications for understanding the interaction between extracellular matrix collagen and cells [30].
2.2 From Single to Multiple Objectives
In addition to tracking intact cells, SWIR imaging also shows unique advantages in tracking smaller biological particles. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are difficult to track with visible light due to their small particle size (30－150 nm) , but the high stability of SWIR probes makes it possible to track EVs over long distances . By utilizing the glucose functionalization properties of QDs, EVs can actively tend to inflamed tissues, achieving continuous tracking from the injection area to the injured nerve. Based on this, Wang Y et al. revealed the "time-sequential release-effect superposition" law in exosome therapy, providing a basis for optimizing dosage and administration frequency. They developed a non-invasive near-infrared fluorescence imaging strategy based on glucose-coupled quantum dots (QDs-Glu) labeling. By tracking EVs in a rat sciatic nerve injury model in real time, they found that the injected EVs migrated from the uninjured site to the nerve injury site, and fluorescence signal enhancement was detected 4 to 7 days after injection. This indicates that EVs can release active ingredients with therapeutic effects [31]. In the treatment of tumors, Yu C et al. constructed a SWIR fluorescent membrane probe for labeling lipid bilayer nanocarriers to guide the precise drug delivery of drug-loaded nanoparticles to tumors [32]. Ding L et al. focused on the early detection of anti-tumor response and developed a rare earth element-based SWIR fluorescent ratiometric nanoprobe that can track the activity of granzyme B in real time and accurately (non-invasively) to predict the efficacy of early tumor treatment [33].
3 Complex fluid structure of SWIR tracer vascular system
Beyond tracing at the cellular scale, SWIR imaging is also suitable for dynamic visualization of complex fluid systems at the macroscopic scale (such as blood flow and lymphatic circulation) , further expanding its application value in physiological fluid dynamics research. Complex fluid systems, including blood flow, lymphatic flow, cerebrospinal fluid circulation (and even interstitial fluid) , generally possess the characteristics of "fine structure, high speed, strong dynamics, and deep space", making them difficult to image accurately with traditional visible light. SWIR imaging, leveraging its high frame rate, high penetration, and ultra-low background, can dynamically visualize these high-speed fluid structures, thereby enabling quantitative physiological fluid dynamics research (see Figure2) .
Fig.2: Complex fluid structure of SWIR-traced vascular system: (a) Visualization of microvascular atlas based on quantum dot-labeled NIR-Ib tracing vascular technology [34]; (b) Continuous measurement of limb perfusion ischemia and reperfusion process using NIR-IIb band [36]; (c) A high-resolution imaging technique using aggregation-induced emission luminescent material TPE-Hexoxyl was developed to enable high-resolution imaging of blood vessels (left image) and lymphatic vessels (right image) [38]; (d) One of three different NIR-II fluorescent probes [44]; (e) Non-invasive in vivo monitoring of cerebrospinal fluid transport in the lymphatic system [45]; (f) Visualization of glial lymphatic transport in TBI mice using SWIR technology [46].
3.1 From Local to Global
Compared with NIR-IIa fluorescence imaging, NIR-IIb fluorescence imaging achieves greater penetration depth, higher signal-to-noise ratio and almost zero endogenous tissue autofluorescence. At the tissue level, by targeting the target biological components with fluorescent probes, in vitro NIR-IIb imaging can clearly show specific biological processes, exhibit the corresponding spatiotemporal characteristics of in situ biological tissue components, and realize real-time observation at the microvascular level. The QDs-labeled NIR-IIb vascular tracing technology developed by Yang Y et al. can clearly visualize microvascular atlases and demonstrate its reliability in real-time and long-term accurate assessment of flap perfusion [34]. Li J et al. focused on the diagnostic difficulties of hemorrhagic diseases and successfully realized in vitro NIR-IIb diagnosis of complex hemorrhagic diseases by designing the LJ-2P probe with affinity for fibrin, giving full play to its technical advantages [35]. In tissue perfusion monitoring, Yang YW et al.’s research showed that NIR-IIb imaging can continuously measure the process of limb perfusion ischemia and reperfusion [36], providing a non-invasive tool for the study of shock, ischemia-reperfusion injury, etc. Chen Z X et al. used NIR-IIb oxyhemoglobin imaging to achieve dynamic monitoring of tumor metabolic status and used it to predict the response to immunotherapy, achieving an important breakthrough in functional imaging [37].
For whole-body fluid dynamics imaging of animals, the improvement of SWIR technology is more focused on the improvement of luminogens. In order to overcome the persistent limitation of low quantum yield in organic dyes, Lin D et al. designed an aggregation-induced emission (AIE) luminogen, TPE-Hexoxyl. They achieved high-resolution in vivo blood circulation, microvascular structure and lymphatic vessel imaging by synergistically inhibiting π-π stacking and minimizing intramolecular charge transfer [38].
3.2 From Dynamic Imaging to Functional Assessment
SWIR technology has the characteristics of high penetration, low scattering and high spatiotemporal resolution. It can not only display deep blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, but also analyze their morphological changes, flow velocity distribution, wall shear force and other fluid dynamic parameters. Especially for the complex fluid network of the lymphatic system: the lymph flow velocity is slow (0.1－2 mm/s) and the diameter is small. Traditional methods are difficult to achieve high-resolution monitoring, while SWIR technology provides a new possibility. Meng X et al. used PbS-QDs as fluorescent probes and innovatively proposed the NIR lymphatic imaging system to trace the drainage of lymph fluid and characterize the dysfunction of the lymphatic system [39]. Deng B G et al. successfully identified sentinel lymph nodes in rabbits and non-human primates in the SWIR window based on surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy nanotags labeled with breast sentinel lymph nodes, which is expected to be used for intraoperative navigation of sentinel lymph nodes [40]. Sun X et al. developed three SWIR probes with different albumin-binding behaviors to dynamically track GS inflow, outflow and brain parenchyma clearance, and found that long-term dexmedetomidine administration can enhance the lymphatic system (GS) lymphatic flow and metabolic waste clearance function, providing valuable biological information for this pathophysiological process [41]. Du Y et al. also developed three different SWIR fluorescent probes [42-44] to mimic large and small molecular waste in the brain and to perform non-invasive in vivo monitoring of cerebrospinal fluid transport in the lymphatic system. They further found that systemic inflammation caused by lipopolysaccharide leads to GS system dysfunction, characterized by excessive inflow and impaired outflow [45]. Similarly, Zhang X et al. focused on the fact that traumatic brain injury impairs lymphatic system function, leading to reduced metabolic waste clearance and aggravated neurological deficits. They used SWIR technology to visualize glial lymphatic transport in TBI mice and studied how AT2R activation regulates glial function after trauma [46].
4 SWIR Tracing of Pathophysiological Processes
As our understanding of fluid structures deepens, researchers are turning their attention to more functional physiological processes. SWIR imaging is gradually moving from "structural tracing" to "functional analysis", enabling dynamic, continuous, and quantifiable monitoring of physiological processes such as tissue regeneration, immune responses, metabolic events, and angiogenesis. This helps researchers understand the spatiotemporal patterns of life activities at a systemic level. SWIR technology can not only describe the spatiotemporal evolution of physiological and pathological processes (such as angiogenesis, immune cell infiltration, and tumor metabolic changes) , but also, through its high spatiotemporal resolution and dynamic continuous imaging capabilities, drive research towards deeper mechanistic analysis.
4.1 Revealing the laws of spatiotemporal coupling
Based on the spatial and intensity fluorescence signals obtained by SWIR technology, researchers can analyze the spatiotemporal coupling patterns in biological organisms. Feng S et al. used SWIR imaging to perform synchronous dynamic visualization of angiogenesis and remodeling, providing a new perspective for understanding the spatiotemporal patterns of vascularization [47]. Yang Y et al. used ribozyme-crosslinked QDs to obtain time-series imaging of flap microvascular remodeling and proposed that the rate of change in microvascular density can be used as a predictive indicator of flap survival [34]. The application of these new technologies demonstrates that SWIR results have a new indicative role in the process of dynamic tissue regeneration.
In terms of nerve regeneration, Wu Y et al. used SWIR imaging to achieve continuous monitoring from nerve rupture to remyelination, capturing the key three-stage process of "end-to-end bridging － axon extension － functional recovery" during the regeneration process, and truly restoring the dynamic picture of nerve repair [48]. For skeletal muscle and peripheral nerves, which are difficult to regenerate, the monitoring of their regeneration by SWIR technology can guide the improvement and adjustment of regeneration strategies, bringing vitality to the innovation of tissue engineering.
Given the diversity and complexity of tumor tissues in terms of cell metabolism, pathogenesis, and microenvironment, SWIR technology can leverage its characteristics to provide multidimensional biological information. Chen Z et al. used NIR-IIb oxygen saturation imaging to analyze tumor metabolic structure, compared the metabolic preferences of glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, and predicted whether immunotherapy would produce a response. This type of "metabolic prediction" strategy is of great significance to precision medicine [49].
4.2 Establish a disease progression prediction model
By establishing specific targeted fluorescent probes, SWIR technology can dynamically present the pathophysiological process of the body, and even predict and diagnose diseases (see Figure3) . The pathophysiological process of the musculoskeletal system has significant dynamic characteristics compared with other systems. Therefore, the dynamic imaging and dynamic analysis characteristics of SWIR technology in the musculoskeletal system have unique advantages. Kang H et al. used cartilage-targeted fluorescent markers to specifically target cartilage, which can predict and diagnose rheumatoid arthritis and other joint diseases at an early stage. This high-resolution, non-toxic fluorescent marker can effectively mark the diseased arthritis area and achieve early intervention [50]. Similarly, in the musculoskeletal system, Chen M et al. used SWIR fluorescence imaging to track M2Mø transplantation technology in injured skeletal muscle of mouse models. The relative perfusion ratio was significantly improved on days 5 and 9 after M2Mø transplantation, and the degree of skeletal muscle regeneration was further enhanced on day 13. Based on this, they proposed that the time after injury and the relative perfusion ratio can be used as indicators to predict the effect of skeletal muscle regeneration [51].
Fig.3: Pathogenic prediction model based on SWIR technology: (a) Imaging of articular cartilage and prediction of related diseases using SWIR technology [50]; (b) Tracking M2Mø transplantation technology in injured skeletal muscle of mouse model using NIR-II fluorescence imaging [51]; (c) In vivo imaging of different animal models of acute kidney injury in the NIR-II window [52]; (d) Identification of in vivo vascular restenosis using NIR-II imaging [53].
In addition, in the cardiovascular system, the latest SWIR technology, which uses fluorescent probes to label flowing fluids, can establish diagnostic and prognostic models for panvascular diseases. Zhu Y et al. reported a fluorophore that can clear the kidneys － PEG-TBSe － and used it to image different animal models of acute kidney injury in vivo in the SWIR window, which can comprehensively assess the severity of AKI in pre-renal, renal, and post-renal models [52]. In an animal model of arterial restenosis, Meng X et al. constructed an oxide probe under hypoxic conditions, which was converted to an amine derivative and triggered the opening of the SWIR fluorescence signal. This property can provide high sensitivity and real-time monitoring of restenosis lesions in vivo, and achieve synchronous real-time monitoring of lesion progression through SWIR imaging [53]. This study provides a promising strategy for developing high-performance therapeutic nanoplatforms that can accurately detect and improve the treatment of restenosis-related diseases.
In summary, the in vitro imaging characteristics of SWIR technology enable it to trace specific physiological processes in organisms, providing a solution for depicting physiological and pathological processes from a spatiotemporal perspective.
5 . Advances in the clinical application of SWIR
In recent years, SWIR technology has gradually moved out of the laboratory and into clinical translation, especially in giving full play to its great advantages in surgical navigation [54]. The real-time navigation of this technology in tumor resection was first applied in liver tumor surgery, and has undergone a long period of development, and has made breakthroughs in recent years.
In 2008, Aoki T et al. first reported the use of indocyanine green (ICG) fluorescence imaging technology in liver resection surgery [55]. Subsequently, Gotoh K et al. reported the use of ICG fluorescence imaging technology for lesion identification in liver cancer resection and for specific localization of liver tumors [56]. In 2012, Ishizawa T et al. first reported the use of laparoscopic ultrasound-guided portal vein puncture of the S4 segment of the liver with positive ICG fluorescence staining technology and liver pedicle occlusion of the S3 segment of the liver and negative staining technology with peripheral vein ICG injection in laparoscopic liver resection [57]. In 2014, Igari K et al. [58] The study of the demarcation and resection margin of liver tumors in the first batch of patients who underwent laparoscopic liver resection under ICG fluorescence navigation [58]. In 2019, China issued the "Expert Consensus on the Application of Indocyanine Green Fluorescent Staining in Laparoscopic Liver Resection". This has a significant clinical promotion effect on the application of ICG staining in laparoscopy [59]. In the same year, Professor Wang Xiaoying of Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University first used 3D technology to perform watershed analysis of portal vein tributaries and puncture and inject ICG to achieve precise liver segment staining and complete the anatomical resection of S2 to S8 segments. This indicates that in the future, the SWIR fluorescence laparoscopic system is expected to become an important navigation tool in minimally invasive surgery, providing a clearer surgical field and more precise operation guidance [54].
To enable clearer visualization of tumor boundaries and minimize damage to surrounding healthy tissue during surgical resection of tumor tissue using S WIR technology, further optimization and improvement are needed. One breakthrough lies in imaging techniques. Using multi-channel SWIR synchronous imaging, researchers achieved precise localization and tracking of lymph nodes during lymph node dissection, while clearly displaying important structures such as surrounding blood vessels and ureters, thus avoiding accidental injury during surgery [60]. Another innovation is the development of more specific targeting probes. For example, Zhang Y et al. proposed a protein-triggered reassembly strategy, which reassembles into a high-emission dye-protein complex when it binds to the target, thereby achieving activated intraoperative imaging: using this principle, the hemoglobin subunits in bile drive the initial quinoline nanoparticles to transform into uniform spherical protein-dye complexes, thereby generating strong fluorescence in the SWIR band, achieving specific imaging of the bile duct during surgery [61].
SWIR technology offers significant advantages, but it remains in its developmental stage. On one hand, while novel, multifunctional SWIR fluorescent probes, including rare-earth-doped nanoparticles, supramolecular polymer nanoparticles, and aggregation-induced emission emitters, have been successfully applied to in vivo imaging, the injection and use of most probes are still in the preclinical research phase, requiring further verification of their biocompatibility, metabolic pathways, and long-term safety. Regarding the development of imaging equipment, we still need to develop multimodal, portable, and highly sensitive SWIR imaging systems, especially SWIR fluorescence endoscopy systems suitable for minimally invasive surgery. In the future, we should also deeply integrate SWIR imaging systems with existing surgical navigation platforms (such as VR/AR and robotic surgical systems) to achieve intelligent and real-time surgical navigation.
6 Outlook
Although SWIR imaging has made groundbreaking progress in in vivo detection, its future development still faces the challenge of deeply integrating imaging materials, imaging systems, and biomedical issues. The future development of SWIR imaging technology should move beyond simply optimizing technical parameters and instead construct a closed-loop research paradigm driven by core biomedical questions.
First, at the level of materials innovation, future probe design must be more intelligent and targeted. This means that functional probes need to be customized and developed based on specific cell types or physiological processes. Second, we must fully explore and integrate the dual imaging advantages of SWIR technology, both "in vivo" and "in vitro", recognizing that its value lies not only in non-invasively acquiring in vivo data, but also in combining in vivo dynamic information with high-resolution ex vivo analysis to achieve a panoramic and quantitative interpretation of biological processes. By determining the optimal time window for cell therapy through in vivo imaging, clinical researchers can use ex vivo imaging to perform precise cellular-level analysis of tissue samples, cross-validating each other. This allows them to connect macroscopic cell migration and retention patterns with microscopic molecular mechanisms and cell interactions, constructing a complete spatiotemporal biological atlas. Finally, the ultimate goal of technological development is to propose and validate new biomedical paradigms. Researchers should proactively utilize the previously unavailable dynamic visualization data provided by SWIR technology to re-examine existing theories: whether it's optimizing cell therapy injection strategies and dosages, precisely defining the time window for anti-infection treatment, or revealing the coupling patterns between vascularization and neural regeneration in tissue regeneration, SWIR technology is not only an observation tool, but also a discovery tool. This technology propels us from describing phenomena to revealing mechanisms, thereby fostering more precise and effective new diagnostic and treatment strategies, and ultimately achieving an improvement from technological empowerment to theoretical innovation.
In conclusion, SWIR imaging is no longer merely a tool for observing biological processes, but has become a key driving force for the development of precision medicine and regenerative medicine. In the future, with the deepening of multidisciplinary integration, it will undoubtedly play an even more profound role in understanding life mechanisms and optimizing treatment strategies.